Gender, Resistance, and Violence Essay

Most people in the capitalist west take it for granted that what they refer to as the Muslim world is recognized most for marginalization and mistreatment of women and girls (Arebi, 99). This belief runs so deep that some westerners are shocked at the sight of Muslim women travelling alone or freely dressed (El-Ghobashy, 110). While the grounds for this belief may have been less shaky centuries ago, women in the Arab world have been taking more active leadership at all levels, rising to become national leaders in such countries as Pakistan, Turkey and the former Yugoslavia (Caprioli & Boyer, 506). The West, and the relatively young Israel, have attacked the Arab world on numerous occasions and not surprisingly, their soldiers are currently occupying Iraq and Afghanistan. The occupying soldiers have been blamed for imposing curfews, sexual assault, beating and humiliating the locals, shooting and injuring parents and their children, and closing border crossings at will (Dubinsky, Krull, Lord, Mills & Rutherford, 16; Mbembe, 39). It is not surprising that a large percentage of Americans are suspicious of Muslims (Asad, 97). Predictably, men in the Middle East have dominated the counter-assault on occupying forces, using such tactics as guerilla attacks, landmines, bombs and suicide attacks. However, women have not taken the backseat they would have been expected to take a century ago (Massad, 469). In resistance to occupation forces and the consequent assault on their culture, thousands of Muslim women have welcomed extremist anti-West ideas and proceeded to attack the occupying soldiers (Crossette, 39). Granted that women attract less suspicion, they make choice suicide bombers. According to Asad (94), the life of an Arab is far cheaper than an Israeli’s, according to the Israelis. It is not odd that the latter kills Arabs in their hundreds for every one Israeli killed. Arab women have been direct and indirect victims of these attacks. It is to defend their people against Israeli- and Western-inspired attacks that more and more women have joined the combat ranks of extremist organizations. Arab women have also led aggressive resistance political campaigns to champion their causes with varying levels of success (Hasso, 90). Thousands of Arab women have sought high-level education in the west and have initiated campaigns of resistance against the attacks aimed at the Arabs. Bibliography Arebi, S. Gender Anthropology in the Middle East: The Politics of Muslim Women’s Misrepresentation. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, Vol. 8, No. 1, 1991: pp 91-108. Asad, T. Talal Asad on Suicide Bombing. Caprioli, M. & Boyer, M. Gender Violence, and International Crisis. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 45, No. 4, August 2001: pp 503-518. Crossette, B. Militancy: Living in a World Without Women. The New York Times, November 4, 2001. Dubinsky, K. , Krull, C. , Lord, S. , Mills, S. & Rutherford, S. (Eds). New World Coming: The Sixties and the Shaping of Global Consciousness. Toronto: Between the Lines, 2009. El-Ghobashy. Quandaries of Representation. Hasso, F. Resistance, Repression, and Gender Politics in Occupied Palestine and Jordan. Massad, J. Conceiving the Masculine: Gender and Palestinian Nationalism. Middle East Journal, Vol. 49, No. 3 (1995): pp 467-483. Mbembe, A. Necropolitics. Public Culture 15(1), 2003. Pp 11-40.

Operation management tma worksheet

Second, Hazelwood has made investments in plant; they build a manufacture in London with 1 million productions of sandwiches per week but when they invest more by building Manton Wood they produce more by 3 million sandwiches. Also with new powerful machines, they could reduce the human resources costs because fewer tasks need to be done . Also the stock levels will be reduced so that this will be successful for the company.Third reasons lead Hazelwood Sandwiches to make investments in the product that customers are looking for quality, different types of Sandwich to compare it when they are abroad, So Hazelwood try to provide a high quality, healthy and delicious sandwiches in order to meet the customer demand. In addition providing different types of sandwiches to satisfy all types of tastes and modify old items or create new ones. Over all, there are many other reasons that lead Hazelwood to made capital investment . ln fact they are trying to gain competitive advantage to maximiz e the wealth of owners.They use different techniques to evaluate the investment opportunities, and then choose the best project. Moreover, Hazelwood maintain a brand name because of its sandwiches, Actually every company should investment in people, product and plant. Question 2 Hazelwood's investment decision techniques Investment decisions are important for the growth of the business because an investment includes financial resources for purchasing assets such building or equipment's which will bring economic benefit for the company. Those decisions are difficult and expensive to refuse once it has been ventured.Actually Hazelwood's uses various capital investment appraisal techniques to measure which project is more profitable. First method is Payback period which is the length of time that the investment takes to pay back the net cash inflows form the project. Projects will be selected according to the period the business sets and the shorter ones are preferred. The advantages o f this method that it's easy and quick to calculate or understood by users, avoiding risks and its good for the startup business to calculate the time needed to prepay the original investment.The disadvantages are that it onsiders about the time not the value of money, the relevant information such as the cash flows beyond the payback period are ignored and it doesn't consider maximizing the wealth of owners because it looks for the short project periods while longer beneficial project might be ignored. The second is Net Present Value includes all the money of an investment; It calculates the benefits from the investment against all the costs of this investment with allowance for the timing of them. The rule is to choose the project with the higher value and the positive ones not the negative ones.For its advantages, it considers about the objects of the business, maximizing the profits, it takes all the relevant cash flows in account and the timing of cash flow. For the disadvantag es, there are some risks for example a machine doesn't works, or that interests may lost in investment, also the problems of inflation which consider the loss in the purchasing power of money. The third is the Accounting Rate of Return which calculates the average operating profits over the average investment to earn those profits in the form of percentage.It's about achieving the target with higher ARR projects. The advantages that it represents a percentage and it consider the performance before it has performed. The disadvantages about using the accounting profits to measure the performance over the life of product, also different sizes of investments competing and using of average investment cause problems. Over all, those are the three investment decision techniques that Hazelwood uses in evaluation the investment opportunities.Each method ranks projects according to some compared features. With those techniques the most profitable project will be chosen. Question 3 Invest in p eople Investing in workforces is the lifeblood for any business, actually it's important to make investments in human resources because they are the main role of the business and attects it pertormance. Also well trained and experienced employees give advantage for the company because they are the workforce that a control the process in which the business operates.So the company should ensure that their employees are well trained, motivated and loyalty to their Jobs. Additionally maintain the satisfaction of the employee will raise the employee performance and focus to achieve the business objectives. Also this will improves their skills in doing the tasks. On one hand, Hazelwood provides flexible working environment: include the induction program which introduced the new employee to the organization and to its role, also programs that make the new employees feel they are a part of the team.Second, Family-friendly HR practices to understand the employee's circumstances such as the w orking hours for the mothers to look for their families and offers a paid time off for pregnant women's. Third, providing training and development opportunities which will enhance the commitment and improve the skills in doing the asks as fast as possible, also opportunities to take National Vocational Qualifications relevant to the food industry. Hazelwood try to provide facilities in the Job environment by providing gyms, hair dressers, shops, restaurants and cleaning services.In addition, the employee's expectations about the nature of work should be met. On the other hand, Hazelwood plain and monitor the performance of its employees to give them reward packages for their high performance. With those methods Hazelwood achieved to be the employee's brand that it's the choice of the employees because they know how to take care of their employees offer them good ay packages. As a result, Hazelwood decreases the labour turnover and reduces the levels of absenteeism also the costs of recruitment.Beside of Hazelwood there are other companies that invest in people in such as the National Bank of Kuwait; they believe that investing in people will benefit them in future. Actually 1800 Kuwaitis has been trained in 2012 and it will always provide training and developments opportunities to encourage their employees. Also ZAIN Company provides programs of training such as ongoing coaching, sending employees outside to complete their high education and induction. Last but not least T;D Team provides training and developments for the employees in order to improved their skills, performance and knowledge.Question 4 Workforce greatest assets For all businesses workforces are the role assets; In fact they are the people who achieve the company objectives. They should be looking after them starting from the managers, suppliers, employers, employee and all of them. Actually investing in people adds value to the organization especially for innovation companies such as Google be cause they rely on the experience of their human resources rather than nything else. The importance of workforces has different points of view. First the HRM function perspective which considers about managing people and carrying out their activities.It's responsible for ensuring that the people are in their right places with right skills by recruiting, selecting, developing and monitoring. HR believes that people performance affects the business performance so they provide training and development opportunities to maximize their performance. Also monitor the performance to ensure that they are on the right track and provides them with feedback. Moreover they provide reward systems to encourage them to achieve their targets and make sure that they are satisfied, motivated, appreciated and loyal to their Jobs.Moreover, this will build the organization's reputation as a social, ethical and responsible organization in order to gain a competitive advantage. Second the accounting functio n which considers about the financial accepts of the business. To achieve the HR function activities, the business should be able to afford the costs associated with those activities. Here the workforces are important because they guarantee bringing money to the business. But before going a step the business should think of the investment returns and risks.As if sending an employee to take English courses, how much of benefits this will bring in the future benefits. Moreover developing the skills of employees will raise the production levels as they have experience, finish the tasks on time and do it perfectly . So they will be able to develop or create new products or advanced technology. Also maintaining a positive reputation that will help them to raise money in the market and the financial advisors will advise the investors to invest in the business. Additionally, the company will gain a brand name which will decrease the costs of recruitment and advertising.

Analysis and Summary of If by Rudyard Kipling

English ISU Rudyard Kipling was born in 1865 and through the years of living in Bombay, he learned about the British Empire. Kipling gave much too English literature and wrote poetry, short stories, and novels1. When Kipling was five, his parents sent him to boarding school in England so he could learn more about his British background. While living in England, Kipling was inspired by the imperialistic views of the British demonstrated around the world. During his school years, Kipling had a very difficult at boarding school. He was physically abused throughout his time in college.After finishing college in 1882, he returned back to India to work as a journalist and editor. Also in 1882, Kipling married an American woman Caroline Balestier and immediately moved to America to live with her. He stayed in Vermont until 1899, and went back alone to England to write literature. The majority of his poems dealt with his opinion of inspiration and imperialism. An analysis of â€Å"If† and â€Å"The White Man’s Burden† makes it clear that Rudyard Kipling uses literary devices effectively to fortify his message of inspiration and imperialism. If† is one of Kipling’s best known poems and it contains one of his most powerful messages of inspiration. In the beginning of the second stanza in â€Å"If†, Kipling uses personification â€Å"If you can dream- and not make dreams your master. † The beginning of the stanza focuses on reality; dreaming is good, but do not let it take control of yourself. Meaning, there are other important goals in life that are needed to be achieved. The second personification used by Kipling is on line 10 and 11 â€Å"If you can meet with triumph and disaster/ and treat those two imposters the same. This explains that failure is a benefit; mistakes are guaranteed to happen. No one is perfect and people learn from their missteps. The final personification on line 21 and 22 Kipling uses is â€Å"If yo u can force your heart and nerve and sinew/ To serve your turn long after they are gone. † This means to put your heart and nerve into your actions in the future and learn from the past. Also, having to accept the past and move on from it with your heart and gut. Alliteration is expressed twice in â€Å"If† to fortify Kipling’s thoughts and expressions throughout his poem.In line 12, the alliteration â€Å"treat those two imposters just the same. † emphasizes Kipling’s point of treating people with equity and respect. This quote implies how Kipling sees society's disapproval towards other people and he interprets that everyone including (imposters) should be fairly treated without criticism or judging based on societal influences. Another example of Alliteration is â€Å"With sixty seconds' worth of distance run,† on line 30, expressing Kipling’s opinion of time. Meaning to try and put an effort in constantly; even when feeling exhaust ed.Repetition and diction is used in â€Å"If† to strengthen Kipling’s message of inspiration. First off, â€Å"you† is used repeatedly in the poem to enrich Kipling’s message directly to the reader â€Å"The white man’s burden†, is one of Kipling’s best views of imperialism throughout the poem. In lines 19 and 20, Kipling uses the personification â€Å"Fill full the mouth of famine/ and bid the sickness cease. † Thus Kipling proclaims that the imperialist nation is going to aid and feed the conquered land.Kipling uses another personification in the sixth stanza â€Å"Nor call too loud on freedom/ To clock your weariness†. Thus, Kipling explores the meaning of individual freedom and that the use of individual freedom should not be an excuse to cover up ones weariness. Also, not aiding others by refusing to â€Å"Take up the White Man`s burden†. Anaphora is used in â€Å"The White Man’s Burden† to giv e emphasis to Kipling’s points. The first example is found in the fourth stanza, â€Å"The ports ye shall not enter, /The roads ye shall not thread,† have the same â€Å"The _ ye shall not _†.This represents Kipling’s repetitive thoughts of the imperial nation being denied to enter and live in the captured nation. Another example of anaphora is used in the sixth stanza â€Å"By all ye cry or whisper, / By all ye leave or do†. Kipling is poetically conveying the ruling of the conquered nation founded by the bequest of the imperial territory. Kipling also expresses the poems theme of Imperialism with the significant use of repetition and allusion. The line â€Å"Take up the White Man’s Burden-† is used at the start of each stanza establishing the basis of the poem.

Computer Sciences and Information Technology Essay

Computer Sciences and Information Technology - Essay Example On the other hand, web applications like Google Docs and its updates are always available to the users free of cost. However, web applications lack security which means for doing highly confidential work, application software is always better than web applications. Moreover, web based applications are shared by a number of users and therefore the system loading speeds at a particular moment may depend on the number of users at that moment. Web applications require internet connection and it is impossible to work on web applications while internet connection problems are there. On the other hand, normal software may not have such problems loading speed problems or internet connection problems. I recommend normal software to my company since normal software provides more flexibility to the users and it is difficult for a company to rely fully on web applications for executing its functions because of the safety, loading speed and internet related problems. 2. Mac vs. PC. Mac computers start always faster than PC’s and it opens the files faster than PC’s. Web pages also open faster in Mac computers than in PC’s. Mac computer make use of Motorola processors which are superior in performance than the Intel processors used in the PC’s. ... p publishing works, Mac computers are preferred worldwide because of its superior image handling abilities whereas PC’s are preferred because of its better software compatibility. In short, performance-wise and operational-wise, Mac computers are superior to PC’s even though it is slightly expensive. I would advise Universal Computing to purchase both Mac and PC’s based on the nature of works in each department. 3. Ethics in Action Privacy is a hotly debated topic in the world at present. There are many cases, in which the security agencies monitor the private communications between people. They are doing so for the national interests or for avoiding security threats. The threats from the terrorists are increasing day by day and all communication mediums including electronic media are used by the terrorists. Many of the countries like China, Pakistan, America etc are believed to be engaged in undeclared Cyber-attacks. It is impossible to counter cyber-attacks wit hout censoring the information passed through internet. Under such circumstances, nobody can blame the security agencies if they monitor private messages. Security is more important than privacy in my opinion. The loss of privacy of some people can save the lives of thousands of people and monitoring of communication channels can be ethically justified in that sense. 4. Should the government require that all Web sites meet the W3C accessibility guidelines? It is not necessary that all web sites meet the W3C accessibility guidelines. For example, it is difficult to implement W3C accessibility guidelines to Web sites hosted by disability organizations since these guidelines can cause more barriers in front of the disabled people in accessing web pages. Websites which are designed properly can be handled

Group World Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Group World Culture - Essay Example There are two official languages in Israel, Hebrew, the biblical language and Arabic. The two languages are written from right to left. Less than half a century ago, the Hebrew language faced extinction as it was considered as a language to be used only for prayers. The Hebrew language was revived through the efforts of a Lithuanian known as Eliezer ben Yehuda. The two languages, Hebrew and Arabic, are taught in schools. Israel is a multilingual country with people from over 120 countries across the world living in the country. Good English is spoken virtually by everyone in Israel. Other languages that are used include Russian, French, Spanish, Yiddish and ten other dialects. Highways and street signs are usually in English, Hebrew, and Arabic. There are many newspapers, journals and magazines published in English. (Torstrick, 2004) Approximately 79% of is Israel’s population belong to Jewish religion. Other religions are Islam (15%) and Christianity (2.5%). There are also other minor religions. Despite the different ethnic and religion affiliation, Israel is a democratic country that allows freedom of worship and other democratic rights to all its citizens. However, there exist division among Jews who define themselves as either secular (hiloni), ultra –orthodox (haredim), modern orthodox (dati-leumi), and traditional (masorati).Tension exist between the religious and secular Jews. Secular Jews differ with rabbinical principles which influence some of their life aspects whereas the ultra-Orthodox Jews advocate more incorporation of Jewish traditions and law in the countrys law. There has also been mild tension between the Arabs who are Muslim and the Christians. The government funds all non-Jewish religions, mainly Christianity and Islam and the groups coexist peacefully. (Myjewishlearning.com, 2 014) Israel is a Jewish state, and the Jewish holidays make part of the national calendar. Sabbath day that is the Jewish

The Old Mans Mitten Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Old Mans Mitten - Essay Example Unlike most girls her age, Mary does not like the colors pink and purple and movies or cartoons that have fairy characters. Instead, she likes chocolates, running on the grass and gymnastics. Her current interest is teaks with a yo-yo.   Mean people, bullies, falling over, mushrooms, nuts, and onions are among the things that Mary does not like. She does well in subjects like Science and Technology, Literacy and Creative and Practical Arts. However, Mathematics, Personal Development, Health and Physical Education are among her weaknesses.   Mary has been my neighbor for 9 months now. We talk about her progress in school about once a week. The reading activity took place in my house, where she had to come over on Thursday at 5:00 in the afternoon. Her father was not present during the activity so there was just the two of us. I had her seated behind a big dining table with the window on her left. To avoid distraction from the changes in the daylight, I turned on the lights for her and sat beside her, on her right. To make her feel comfortable and more relaxed, I asked the child to pretend that I am a student and she is the teacher giving me a reading lesson. Mary loved the idea and was even enthusiastic about it. She asked me to sit on the carpet in front of her while she moved her chair in the middle of the dining room. Before moving on to the activity, I told her if it was Ok to record her reading since she is such a good reader. I then gave her two different books to read.   For stage 1 of the activity, I gave her the book â€Å"Alison’s Dad is Lost† by an unknown author. Mary did not find any difficulty in reading and she did not commit any mistake. For the second stage, she read a traditional tale entitled "The Old Mans Mitten" by Yvonne Pollock, with illustrations by Trish Hill (Pollock, 1994).

Violence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Violence - Essay Example The humans tend to fall in line with overall societal and normative outlook of the society so that they should not appear aliens to the local setup. The individual behaviors remain dependent on others from the beginning. The children are known to be dependent on their parents for fulfillment of their needs and wants. The interdependencies of a society often tend individuals to mold their personal behaviors according to the cultural norms of the community (Butler pp. 17). The community is primarily responsible for providing for the fundamental necessities of life. The societies are famous for exhibiting ruthless and inhumane behaviors towards those who do not conform to the acceptable cultural practices and therefore, they are often denied basic human rights. The human life is always under the profound influence and spell of the society and because of this reason, nobody does not have the full capacity and power to act alone. The sexual life of an individual is considered a very priva te matter of the person but they are informally regulated by the masses. The social constructivism theory states that individuals always observe the collective behavior of the society and attempt to embrace its norms and values. ... The human civilization is made up of communal relations and therefore, the individuals have to demonstrate conformation with societal norms in order to appear legitimate members of the certain community. However, the philosophical minorities initially gather their supporters to form institutions and once these centers are formalized then the followers of the neglected philosophy have the option to practice their beliefs in a controlled environment. The gay and lesbian communities formed centers where people can follow their sexual orientation in an isolated environment. The attempts are being made in order to promote gay and lesbian relations. But, the struggles are not proving to be fruitful in terms of attaining the goals in a short term perspective. The changes will take significantly long period of time in order to become an accepted practice in the culture of developed nations. The cultural norms are considered as the most notable obstacle and hindrance in the way of profound cu ltural acceptability of gay and lesbian relationships. The contemporary marital bonds evolved as people got more and more dissatisfied with conventional marriages. The intra-sex relations were falling apart and both the genders argued that their partners did not understand and respond to their deep seated needs and wants. The intersex relations then became popular because members of the same gender knew the art of pleasing their partners. The growing demand of sex toys is an evident proof that homosexuality is growing in all parts of the world. Nevertheless, it is very much imperative to note that lesbians and gays are famous for acting normal in the public so that they should not end up alienated in the society (Butler pp.20). They are however, famous for seeking their ideal

Government grants for alternative energy research Proposal - 1

Government grants for alternative energy - Research Proposal Example Because of this, it is important for the United States to find alternative means of energy that are sustainable, and that create less dependence on foreign oil and other fossil fuels. President Obama has instituted a variety of measures that will cut down on the carbon emissions that influence climate change (Obama, 2010). Many people suggest that without an alternative method of fuel, the nation as we know it will change. Al Gore has presented information about how global warming is influencing the world as it is known today, and suggests that something must be done in order to slow the process down. Shown in these descriptions are the facts that there are many issues that must be addressed when looking at the world and how it currently uses fuel. If sustainable energies can be discovered and used, the world would be able to sustain itself better in the long run. Specific Claim Alternative fuels can promote a healthier environment and can create a more sustainable world. With the he lp of government grants to sponsor climate research, many more researchers can have the opportunity to identify those fuels that could help the environment. The discovery of these grants will be an opportunity to understand who is eligible to help in this endeavor and the amount of money that is being presented. Justification of The Claim Since President Obama took office, sustainable fuels have been a concern.

Joint Venture between the Government and Business in Africa Term Paper

Joint Venture between the Government and Business in Africa - Term Paper Example The company has engaged in many social and economic activities that have benefited the country and the citizens. This includes the construction of roads, hospitals and schools. This has helped in growth of the economy and improvement of the living standards as the per capita income has grown from $80 to $6000 per year. In its early years of its operations, after the discovery of the diamonds, De Beers operated, as a monopoly by regulating diamond supply, which meant the price of diamonds, remained high. After sometime, De Beers realized that they could not control the market anymore. The company was forced to stock enormous amounts of diamonds when the demand for the diamond was extremely low. The company also discovered that they could not control the discovery of diamonds in the entire world. For instance, Canada refused to join the cartel that De Beers had formed. The change of policy was also largely influenced by the unfavorable image created by blood diamonds. Rebels in the nei ghboring countries would force civilians to extract the diamonds and sell them off in order to get money to purchase weapons. The company’s change of focus changed from scheming the supplying the diamonds to a moderate policy of marketing and selling the diamonds already in their stores. This focus helped in creating demand rather than controlling the supply. The company still maintained a significant market control through selling the diamonds to traders who were willing to conform to the laws of the land and regulations set by De Beers. This helped to create an environment to conduct business in a more ethical manner. The construction of the Kimberly process in Gaberone ensured that all the sold diamonds were mined legally. This helped in diminishing the blood diamond issue, which was used to finance wars across Africa. This also helped to restore the reputation of the company, which had been eroded by the blood diamond issue. (JOE NOCERA, Diamonds) The success story of thi s joint venture between De Beers and the government of Botswana has worked because the Botswana government believes in democracy and encourages economic growth in the country. The government also saw the partnership as a way to improve the living standards of the citizens in the country. For this type of partnership to flourish, the government must have the will to improve for the benefit of the common citizens. The company had previously attempted to work in partnership with other countries and government but, it did not work due to corruption in those countries. Since Botswana attained its independence, she has always remained democratic and free state. Here, the leaders in the government are sincere and intelligent. This is the rationale as to why the joint venture has been of help to the Botswana citizens. We can therefore hardly compare Botswana leaders with other African leaders who only enhance their selfish interests. Many African leaders accept money from foreigners in orde r for foreigners to extract the country’s resources without benefiting the people of that country. WTO trade negotiations over farm subsidies The government of United States has for many years partnered with private businesses in the country. Among the common partners are the farming industries. They enjoy many subsidies from the government each year. The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established after the World War II. Its main role was to regulate and create an economic order where all

Compare the two newspapers Essay Example for Free

Compare the two newspapers Essay In this essay I will be studying two articles and discussing the differences between them. One article is from the tabloid newspaper The Daily Mail and the other article is from the broadsheet newspaper The Guardian. Both reports are the same and are about an A-level grading scandal at the universities in Cambridge and Oxford. The headline also includes slight exaggeration describing the disaster at the universities as a scandal to entice the reader. The page is set on a five-column layout with two subsections at the bottom of the page. The pictures are printed just below the headline, as they are important to the clarification of the report. Below the pictures are the annotations from each of the three students explaining their stories. There are also the names of the reporters and writers above the article. The three pictures of the students are full facials as the photographers were trying to get close-up enough so you can feel the frustration that they are going through. They are three separate pictures as the students are from different classes, possibly even from different schools. They have a student from History called Michael Herring a young lady from English called Ann-Marie and another young lady also called Anne-Marie but from Geography. The emotions they show are frustration and anger at the situations they have now been put in. The opening paragraph is definitely the main part of the article not including the headline. It is the first proper part of script, which you read, and its this part, which has to get you hooked for you to read on. The opening paragraph for this report definitely does that as it summarises the story in short form, so, if you like it, you read on, if you dont, you read whatever does interest you. Overall the written report is all about the event at hand, it doesnt wander and talk about something else suddenly, it is about the one story only. There arent really any opinions but it does have peoples speech and comments e. g. some members of the council board have mentioned that there is a definite fault in the new grading system. It does mention that Tony Blairs son Euan Blair could have also been affected by this event as he was taking his French A-levels at the time it happened. So Tony Blair is supporting any means of helping the situation. In my opinion the reporters would find it hard to find this sort of story amusing and they have obviously looked into every fact and written each one about twice. So I think they certainly have their own opinions about this situation. There isnt really any proper slang as this is an important report and the language is aimed at all age groups. The reporters have made sure everyone can read the article. It isnt written in superior or sophisticated words either, as the newspaper is not aimed at really high-class people . There isnt any jokes or stock expressions, as they arent trying to make this story into a joke , it is a serious report. I would say the overall tone of the report is earnest. This decision is supported by the title of the report which exaggerates the story and makes it sound very significant. The pictures support the tone as the students seem depressed and unhappy so they also make you think what has happened is not a good thing . The report itself is written as if they know exactly what their talking about and they want you to know. I dont think this is typical report for a tabloid newspaper because normally they add lots of stock expressions and use more colloquial language. I think the purpose of this report is to make you think. Think about the important things that are happening at the moment that arent actually affecting you, for you to realise what is happening in your community and to possibly act upon it. Maybe you cant act upon this but maybe when there is something else just as important you wont choose to ignore it. In the broadsheet newspaper this would probably be categorised as an inside story as it doesnt take up much room on a broadsheet page. Also this report doesnt have any pictures but it does have a lot of writing. The article is about the same subject as the tabloid, but the headline describes it in a different way. It doesnt use any exaggeration but it tries to make the report sound more horrific by saying the number of examination papers that have to be reviewed, which is, 300,000 where as the tabloid newspaper said the number of students that the grading scandal had hit, which is, 100,000. The report is a six-column layout with a short bold headline above it and a quick summary of what the story is about before you actually start to read the article and at the end of the report theres an email address for the Guardian newspaper online. The opening paragraph uses no colloquial language and is written in a full but short sentence. The whole article is dedicated to the written report and there are no subsections on the page although in a broadsheet there were probably other features on the page or other stories. Again the writers or reporters names are on the page. No slang words are used as the type of people who read the newspaper are mainly high-class people who wouldnt read slang or colloquial language. There are a lot of peoples comments in the report. I suspect the reporters find this story very interesting as they include what a lot of people said and add the teachers names who work at the universities. There are no stock expressions but I dont think its just because this is a serious report, I dont think they use them anyway. I think the tone of the report in the broadsheet is not quite as serious as in the tabloid , the newspaper liked the story and decided to publish it to see if that would get the readers eye. I dont think it was very high priority to the reporters as it was only an inside story and there were no pictures to support the tone of the article and the headline wasnt very strong either. The broadsheet would ever publish something like this as a human interest story, unlike the tabloid, as it would not interest the type of people who would buy this newspaper. My conclusion is that I think tabloid newspapers are easier to read and they have pictures to support the article and the newspaper is smaller to carry around. They were both very informative but in their own ways. They are very different and that is because they are aimed at different audiences.

Training Needs Theories and Principles

Training Needs Theories and Principles Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Introduction Training has become a key focus for many organizations wishing to increase their capability, to pursue their strategy and to achieve their goals. It has a great impact not only on efficiency and organizational performance, but also on employees behaviour within the organization. Flexible training programmes may also help an organization to be more responsive to changes in its environment. Therefore, the first objective of this chapter is to explore the meaning of training and of training needs, while the second is to examine the theories dealing with these concepts. It then turns more specifically to an exploration of literature examining training needs in police organizations. 2.2 Developing Countries According to Kinsey (1988), developing country is a term used to describe countries outside the so-called Western bloc of technically advanced nations (North America, Western Europe, Japan, Australia and New Zealand) and the communist bloc. However, due to the rapid economic development in some countries (NICs) and the political and economic disturbances in the communist bloc which have resulted in dramatic changes during the last two decades, the above definition must be amended. Other terms which have been used to designate these countries include industrializing, less-developed and underdeveloped. Each tends to have certain connotations, some being more complementary than others, and some gaining popularity while others disappear. Whatever term is used, these countries are distinguished by widespread poverty. Beside this basic characteristic, Kinsey (1988) describes developing countries as having certain similarities, including low income per capita and per worker, small industria l sectors, few economies of scale, primitive technology, lack of specialization, low capital per worker, small savings per head for the bulk of the population, lack of enterprise, inadequate physical and social infrastructure, low volume of international trade per head and low efficiency. The question is: how could developing countries influence our country in management training? 2.3 Organizational Characteristics Organizations may be characterized in many different ways, depending on the reason for the classification. For the purposes of the present research, the characteristics of the Dubai Police must be examined in relation to the need for training; several authors have suggested that organization size, type of ownership and industrial sector are the main variables affecting the management of training needs (Abdalla and AlHomud, 1995). Alternatively, Wright and Geory (1992) connect training needs with management strategy, organizational structure and corporate culture. In theory, organizations can be characterized in many ways, but there is general agreement that the size of the organization is of prime importance, followed by structure, strategy (e.g. short or long term), technology use, environment and organisational culture. These are the theoretical concepts which will be examined in this study as quantifiable conditions and variables in the management of the Dubai Police. Definitions of Training Training is a very important process in any organization, allowing it to develop its employees skills and improve their performance at work. This section considers the definitions of training suggested by a number of authors. Thus, training can be described as a perfect way to learn a job or to develop employees skills. The organization of individual skills is a significant characteristic of business responsibility today, and employee motivation potentially grows in the process (Noe, 1999). The profit from employee development extends further than the concrete skills gained and their effect on an individuals efficiency (Benson, 2002). Among the many important definitions of training, the following selection is organised chronologically for convenience. Training has historical definitions; for example, Schuler and MacMillan (1984) defined it as part of human resource management (HRM) practice which has the potential to contribute to gains in competitive advantage. But this definition was incomplete because in 1984 there was a lack of information on HRM, which was still a new concept for many organizations. There was also a focus on competitive advantage among organizations, ignoring employee development and direct benefit to the organizations business. Rainbird and Heyes (1994) then defined training as employee development via engaging employees in a commitment to the organization. But this definition only involved employees in commitment and did not state how they were to be developed at work, so Heyes and Stuart (1996) refined this definition by adding that training is a development process which evolves through strategic stages. This definition indicates that development in any organization, whether short or long term, involves organizational commitment. Buckely and Caple (1995) defined training as a strategy to develop employees in skills, knowledge and attitude through a learning experience to achieve effective performance in a range of activities. Again, this definition was subject to important refinements, when Montesino (2002) pointed out that many factors may affect the effectiveness of training, including individual employees behaviour, the training programme, the local environment and the amount of support from each trainees immediate supervisor. Earlier, when Smith and Hayton (1999) defined training, they also attempted to show how certain factors impact on training needs and the decision to train employees. First, employee performance is very important and should be improved. Secondly, improvement is needed in the flexibility and adaptability of employees. Finally, training always needs new technology and investment in training needs to achieve high performance in an organization. This definition indicates the importance of high performance for training decisions, of changing the roles within the organization to increase flexibility and adaptability at work and of using new technology to achieve high performance. The authors also claim that it is a more sophisticated system of human resources management. According to Sparrow (1998), training can be managed to elicit the desired attitudes and behaviours in employees and to enhance involvement, motivation and organizational commitment. The main point of this definition is to motivate and involve employees in organizational commitment; the result could be to change employees behaviour, but these processes are controlled by the organization. Bartlett (2001) adds to this perspective by noting that there are many ways to motivate employees, the best being to improve access to training and the motivation to learn from training, as well as emphasising the perceived benefits of training. This definition shows the importance of motivating employees in training programmes and the benefit to be gained from supervisory support for training within the organization. Finally, Palo and Padhi (2003) define training as the process of developing skills, updating knowledge, changing employees behaviour and attitudes in order to improve their performance and abilities and so to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization. 2.5 Training Theories 2.5.1 Training and Behaviour Theories Luthans (1998) considers that training can help organisations to change employees behaviour and that one technique of behaviour modification, encouraging desired behaviours and discouraging unwanted ones, is operant conditioning. Such behaviourist techniques were first used for the treatment of mental disorders and phobias, in psychiatric rehabilitation and in recovery from accident and trauma. Applications have since been extended to organisational settings. As developed by Fred Luthans (Luthans and Kreitner, 1985; Luthans et al., 1998), organisational behaviour modification theory has five mains steps. The first step is to identify the critical, observable and measurable performance-related behaviours to be encouraged. The second is to measure the current frequency of those behaviours, to provide a baseline against which to measure improvement. Next, the triggers or antecedents for those behaviours are identified, as are their consequences, positive, neutral and negative. The fourth step is to develop an intervention strategy to strengthen desired behaviours and weaken dysfunctional behaviours through the use of positive reinforcement (money, recognition) and corrective feedback, noting that punishment may be necessary, for example to inhibit unsafe behaviour. Finally, there is a systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of the approach in changing behaviour and improving performance over the baseline. Training can appear particularly attractive to managers, who are often in ideal positions to manipulate the reinforcement of certain employee behaviours. They also tend to find this approach attractive because it argues that what has to be changed is behaviour, and that to achieve this one needs to know very little about the complex internal workings of the people concerned. Desirable workplace behaviours include speaking courteously to customers, attending training to develop new skills and being helpful to colleagues. Undesirable ones include lateness, the production of poor quality items and being uncooperative. Training should eliminate undesired behaviour and increase the frequency of desired work behaviour. Suppose a manager wants more work assignments completed on time and fewer submitted beyond deadline. The behaviour modification options are summarized in Table 2.5.1. Luthans (1998) gives some ideas for improving performance through training, which failed to work. But Luthans argues that behaviour modification should be designed to suit organisational applications. Firstly, training should be applied to clearly identifiable and observable behaviours, such as timekeeping, carrying out checks and repairs, and the use of particular work methods. Secondly, to change organisational behaviour there should be a good strategy of rewards which are contingent on the performance of the desirable behaviours. Thirdly, training should focus on positive reinforcement, which can take a number of forms, from the praise of a superior to cash prizes, food or clothing. Finally, training can lead to sustained modification of behaviour only if positive reinforcement is continued (albeit intermittently). Training and Motivation Theories Smith and Hayton (1999) identify the following theories, which mention the role of training in organizations. i. Human capital theory This theory focuses on training in terms of economic investment. Human capital theory sees training as improving efficiency (Becker, 1964; Mincer, 1974; Strober, 1990). It is concerned with developing ideal training conditions. In the 1980s neo-human capital theory stated that organizations should train their employees consecutively to develop the flexibility and suppleness of the workforce and their receptiveness to modernisation (Bartel and Lichtenberg, 1987). ii. Human resource management theory This theory concerns the commitment of employees to the organization and views training and employee development as a means of engaging it (Rainbird, 1994; Heyes and Stuart, 1996). The early formulation of a hypothetical structure for HRM came from the Harvard Business School in the early 1980s (Beer et al., 1984). Training is seen as a strategy for managing the human resource flow of a venture which, with other human resource policies, creates commitment, competence, congruence and cost-effectiveness. iii. Training and high performance theory This is among the most widely adopted theories in organizations in Britain and the USA. It concerns the skills trajectory and proposes a distinction between those occupations which are becoming increasingly skilful and others which are deskilling over time (Gallie and White, 1993; Cappelli, 1993). Studies of high-performance employment practices and HRM strategies have resulted in the concept of human resources bundles (MacDuffie, 1995; Dyer and Reeves, 1995) which highlight the significance of implementing a number of HRM practices collectively in bundles in order to enhance performance. Training is always cited as a critical measure within the set. Training Needs Analysis Training needs analysis (TNA) is a very important stage in the methodical training cycle of design, delivery and evaluation. The purpose of TNA is to take account of unusual meanings and perspectives depending upon a variety of actors in the process, avoiding misunderstandings about prospects and what can be achieved. In addition, external trainers and consultants are able to acknowledge the importance of a challenge when they rely upon TNA which has been conducted prior to their involvement with an organization. For instance, the excellence of feedback provided by the TNA process might differ significantly, from a very detailed search to a cheap and cheerful canvassing of opinions about what is needed. In addition to the challenges noted above, there are considerations about whose benefit is served: Is the training compulsory? Does it represent the needs of individual people, their managers, the organization, etc? 2.6.1 Definition of Training Needs Analysis Williamson (1993) defines TNA as a systematic approach to determining the real training needs which exist within an organization or department. This indicates that TNA involves collecting information, for example by examining the training programmes of different organizations. A number of managers will refer to the total procedure of identifying the essential training needs, after which the next step is to analyze and address them by the best available method. The pure understanding of the term describes the last procedure simply. Although understanding can differ, it is significant that there is supposed to be constancy of practice within any organization and all employees are assumed to be completely conscious of the sense of local terminology in this field. The term training need can be difficult to define in practice, with serious consequences. On other hand, there are many authors who have defined training needs analysis as the examination or diagnostic portion of the training system. In addition, it seeks to determine whether there exists a case of supposed performance deficiency in many organizations (Camp et al., 1986). This view applies to TNA. That is to say, needs evaluation in a training needs analysis is, in truth, a diagnostic attempt, rather than an effort to identify an apparently deficient performance, because TNA does not have direct access to employees performance. Conversely, Goldstein (1986) defines TNA as an attempt to analyze and diagnose an organization, task or individual, to decide if a cure is required and if so, which is the most likely to produce the desired results. Once more, TNA is seen as a diagnostic process at an organizational level. 2.6.2 Approaches to TNA One of the earliest writers on TNA was Boydell (1976), who planned a methodical approach to training needs that had its roots in analyzing supplies using a method based on organizational objectives. For Boydell (1976, p. 4), A training need exists when the application of systematic training will serve to overcome a particular weakness. He also argues that training needs must be identified before training begins. A similar perspective is presented by Bartram and Gibson (1994, p. 3): Analyzing training needs provides a focus and direction for the investment an organization has to make in its people. Likewise, Bee and Bee (2003) assert that organizations needs are the drivers for training solutions to close any performance gap. Two supporting considerations which influence TNA are also noted by Reay (1994). Firstly, establishing who has ownership of the TNA is likely to determine whether the findings are ignored or implemented. Secondly, the person who really pays for it will point to t he real employees and this is usually senior management. On the other hand, this methodical approach to TNA tends to adopt organizational perspectives. Reid and Barrington (1999) accept these perspectives, but warn that the needs may sometimes conflict, e.g. long-term development for an individual and lack of support opportunities might contradict each other. Similarly, Sloman (1994, p. 24) notes that in the training sphere there can be a singular divergence of interests between the organization and the individual. This viewpoint is shared by Palmer (2006), who warns against assessing training needs solely from the viewpoint of the organization. Many individual employees correctly follow their own training and development agendas and strategies. There are also sound business and motivational reasons for organizations to help employees to complete their self-development needs. Learning and development are continuing and practical (Sloman, 2003). They are supposed not to have to wait for business needs and training objectives to be set before embarking on a programme. Therefore, individuals need to take more responsibility for their own learning, rather than waiting for the organization to lead them. 2.6.3 Important TNA Factors in a Changing Competitive Environment There are important factors which affect TNA in a competitive environment for any organization and which a professional approach to change requires those responsible to consider. These are now examined in turn. i. Cross-competitive environment The abolition of collective differences in vocational results can be maintained by training programmes for diverse employees in a competitive environment, which can produce admiration for individual differences in attitudes, values and behaviours, according to DNetto and Sohal (1999), who recommend certain practices in the field of training. These include identifying exact training needs which are connected to the organizations goals and objectives; assessing individual training needs to facilitate a contribution within the training programme; developing individual annual training strategies which take account of knowledge, operational and interpersonal skills, attitudes to the job and technological skills training; evaluating literacy, language and numeracy to assess the ability to undergo training; connecting training to rewards, project agreements, development procedures and pay scales; and identifying the complementary skills of employees through a review process. ii. Diversity Moore (1999) suggests that a diversity needs analysis is required for the effective integration of diverse group members. Two contrasting approaches to diversity of background are to ensure that the organization is diversity blind or to provide a diversity-negative environment. According to Moore (1999), an important starting point in an environment of diversity in TNA is awareness of different challenges faced by people from different backgrounds within the organization. Training programmes should facilitate the understanding and appreciation of actual differences between people, which can apply in communicating and using language, in learning styles, in methods of dealing with conflict and in task and relationship orientation. Developing and integrating competencies and skills in culturally diverse employees is the next step presented by Moore (1999). It should create a mechanism whereby individuals learn to avoid damaging processes due to dysfunctional interpersonal conflict, miscommunication, higher levels of stress, slower decision-making and problems with group cohesiveness. Moore (1999) states that the development of important communication skills is needed in order to achieve effective integration of competencies. These skills are the ability to consider viewpoints that may differ from ones own, to communicate, to negotiate and to face difficulties appropriately. iii. Leadership According to Silverthorne (2005), leadership plays an important role in decision-making and organizational achievement. In order to develop effectively in a cross-competitive environment, leaders must understand and control their own behaviour, as this affects employees perceptions of leadership. They must also ensure that environmental issues are considered when choosing the best management style. However, appreciating the differences in leadership styles is not sufficient to be an effectual leader, as the necessary insight also varies with the environment. Silverthorne (2005) states that an effectual leader knows which leadership style to employ and when to employ it. There are four contrasting leadership styles: active or involved, supportive, participative and attainment-oriented. Active leaders tell subordinates what is required and put into effect individual systems to direct them; the supportive leader creates a friendly environment and is responsive to her subordinates needs; the participative leader engages them in the decision-making process; and the achievement-oriented leader applies high standards to the decision-making process and appears confident that subordinates will reach them. Silverthorne (2005) argues that an effective leaders choice of leadership style is based on the context of the task and the needs of the subordinates. iiii. Communication Silverthorne (2005) also suggests that one way to achieve better communication between individuals with different competitive backgrounds is to apply TNA to managers on how to work in a competitive environment. He proposes four ways of reducing cross-environment communication problems. First, managers should focus on differences in communication styles. Understanding that employees are different means describing a behaviour, rather than the individual. This will give the manager the time to understand the subject being discussed. Thirdly, the manager should attempt to understand the subject from the employees perspective. Seeing the employees point of view gives the manager an opportunity to better understand what the employee is trying to communicate. Finally, the manager must listen more openly than normal and engage in exercises to improve the communication process. 2.7 Management Training Many organizations today have training programmes for their employees but the reasons for conducting them vary widely. Some provide job orientation for new recruits; others training on new equipment for existing employees or strategic planning courses for managers. Successful managers need multi-skills training and detailed information about the organization. Training programmes for managers should cover different skills than those for employees; examples are functional, administrative, planning and leadership skills. Assessing changes in performance following training is complicated by the fact that while some of these skills can be easily observed in the short term, others will be apparent only from long-term changes in the performance of the manager, the department or the entire organisation. 2.7.1 Different types of training needs All employees should be aware of the types of management training their organization offers, because many will be planning to be line-managers in the future, so will require certain skills. McConnell (2003) lists twelve types of training which are very useful in ones current job and helpful for the future. These are now examined in turn. i. Group Training Group training involves three or more individuals who participate in a common learning activity, generally led by a group facilitator. ii. Coaching Coaching is one-on-one job training. Generally it includes demonstrations, lectures and observation of practice. iii. Mentoring This is a process in which experienced employees are assigned to assist newer employees through guidance. Sometimes it takes a formal approach; at others it is informal. It is also used to introduce employees to a companys culture and environment. iiii. Self-Paced Learning This is any learning activity in which the learner determines the speed at which the material is covered. Generally, it is an individualized form of instruction, but it can be used with groups, the speed being set either individually or by the group. V. E-Learning This is a term used to describe learning activities conducted from the users desktop via the Internet or e-mail. It is generally an individual activity. Vi. Computer-Assisted Instruction This is the delivery of training via a computer. Again it is generally individualized. It can include programmes on modelling, simulation, practice and knowledge. Vii. Distance Learning Training This describes instruction in which the teacher is geographically separated from the learner. Connection can be via satellite or phone line with the instruction delivered to a PC or to a room specially equipped with video or audio conferencing equipment. Viii. Self-Study Self-study refers to learning activities initiated and participated in by an individual. Programmed or computer-assisted instruction and reading assignments can all be self-study activities. Viiii. Simulations These are controlled and standardized representations of a job, activity or situation used as a basis for developing skills in dealing with the simulated situations. VV. Lectures These are structured oral presentations delivered for the transfer of information. VVi. Job Assignments Job assignments place an individual into an actual job, generally for a limited period of time, the primary goal being to learn all or part of the job. VVii. Job Rotation This is similar to job assignment but generally includes several assignments in a planned order or the exchange of jobs with another person. 2.7.2 Different levels of training needs The objective of a training needs analysis is the identification of the training required to meet the recognized needs. In point of fact, while these may be accepted or revised by the employees, a senior person may be assigned to decide what training is necessary. The person conducting the training or assessing the needs is not always the individual who develops or recommends the training. On the other hand, the most important step in TNA is to translate the recognized needs into objectives. Then individual objectives can be used to develop or choose a training approach at individual and organization level. Beside the types of training, McConnell (2003) specifies the levels of needs for individual and organization and the personnel who will conduct the training. i. Supervisors These are the people who manage the people being trained. ii. Human Resources These are the professionals in the human resources department. If training is a function of the HR department, it is treated separately. iii. Operating Department Employees These are the employees of the department for which an individual is to be trained. iiii. Training Department Personnel These are generally training professionals employed by the training department. Their strengths are their skills and knowledge of training techniques and procedures. The most common criticism of such people is that they lack specific job or operational knowledge. Some organizations assign their trainers to specific areas-sometimes even to temporary work in the operating departments-to overcome such weaknesses. V. Operating Department Personnel on Temporary Assignment to Training These are people who usually have excellent job knowledge but often lack training skills. Many organizations use this approach because it gives greater credibility to the training sessions, while the operating personnel on such an assignment benefit greatly from the experience and learning of training techniques. Vi. External Professionals These are usually training consultants, supplier employees, or academics. Generally, they are used when the required degree of knowledge or skill is not available within the organization. These people are usually excellent trainers, but they can be expensive to use. If they offer similar classes on a regular basis, consistency may be lost if the same external person does not conduct all classes. Vii. External Organizations Local schools and professional organizations often conduct registration programmes in general subjects. Knowing the types of training currently being used by an organization and who conducts each training type provides an initial indication of what can be done. However, in some cases the training will have to be designed and/or obtained elsewhere. 2.7.3 The Roles of HR, Trainers and Line-Managers The many roles within the training function can be analyzed and their strengths and weaknesses identified. The training function within an organization should have as part of its mission the meeting of the organizations requirements; its success at accomplishing that will be the basis for the analysis. HR people and line-managers in the training function should help the organization to improve and involve employees in training courses which could be helpful in enhancing their skills and hence their performance, so HR people and line-managers must undertake a number of tasks, summarised below. Training organization: the mission of the training function, its internal structure, and internal and external relationships. Training personnel: the selection, qualifications, and motivation of department employees. Employee training in the requirements of specific jobs or activities. Employee development training in the requirements of future jobs and broadening their abilities in their current posts. Remedial training, conducted to correct inadequate basic skills such as mathematics, reading and writing. Organizational development: improving communication and understanding throughout the organization in order to produce effective, functioning teams; establishing or changing to a desired culture; and responding to changing conditions. Internal and external communication of the training departments abilities, results, and offerings. Training facilities: the physical space and equipment allocated to conduct training. Identifying training needs: determining the training required by individual employees and the organization. Training design and development: creating, structuring, or obtaining a training programme to meet specific ob Training Needs Theories and Principles Training Needs Theories and Principles Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Introduction Training has become a key focus for many organizations wishing to increase their capability, to pursue their strategy and to achieve their goals. It has a great impact not only on efficiency and organizational performance, but also on employees behaviour within the organization. Flexible training programmes may also help an organization to be more responsive to changes in its environment. Therefore, the first objective of this chapter is to explore the meaning of training and of training needs, while the second is to examine the theories dealing with these concepts. It then turns more specifically to an exploration of literature examining training needs in police organizations. 2.2 Developing Countries According to Kinsey (1988), developing country is a term used to describe countries outside the so-called Western bloc of technically advanced nations (North America, Western Europe, Japan, Australia and New Zealand) and the communist bloc. However, due to the rapid economic development in some countries (NICs) and the political and economic disturbances in the communist bloc which have resulted in dramatic changes during the last two decades, the above definition must be amended. Other terms which have been used to designate these countries include industrializing, less-developed and underdeveloped. Each tends to have certain connotations, some being more complementary than others, and some gaining popularity while others disappear. Whatever term is used, these countries are distinguished by widespread poverty. Beside this basic characteristic, Kinsey (1988) describes developing countries as having certain similarities, including low income per capita and per worker, small industria l sectors, few economies of scale, primitive technology, lack of specialization, low capital per worker, small savings per head for the bulk of the population, lack of enterprise, inadequate physical and social infrastructure, low volume of international trade per head and low efficiency. The question is: how could developing countries influence our country in management training? 2.3 Organizational Characteristics Organizations may be characterized in many different ways, depending on the reason for the classification. For the purposes of the present research, the characteristics of the Dubai Police must be examined in relation to the need for training; several authors have suggested that organization size, type of ownership and industrial sector are the main variables affecting the management of training needs (Abdalla and AlHomud, 1995). Alternatively, Wright and Geory (1992) connect training needs with management strategy, organizational structure and corporate culture. In theory, organizations can be characterized in many ways, but there is general agreement that the size of the organization is of prime importance, followed by structure, strategy (e.g. short or long term), technology use, environment and organisational culture. These are the theoretical concepts which will be examined in this study as quantifiable conditions and variables in the management of the Dubai Police. Definitions of Training Training is a very important process in any organization, allowing it to develop its employees skills and improve their performance at work. This section considers the definitions of training suggested by a number of authors. Thus, training can be described as a perfect way to learn a job or to develop employees skills. The organization of individual skills is a significant characteristic of business responsibility today, and employee motivation potentially grows in the process (Noe, 1999). The profit from employee development extends further than the concrete skills gained and their effect on an individuals efficiency (Benson, 2002). Among the many important definitions of training, the following selection is organised chronologically for convenience. Training has historical definitions; for example, Schuler and MacMillan (1984) defined it as part of human resource management (HRM) practice which has the potential to contribute to gains in competitive advantage. But this definition was incomplete because in 1984 there was a lack of information on HRM, which was still a new concept for many organizations. There was also a focus on competitive advantage among organizations, ignoring employee development and direct benefit to the organizations business. Rainbird and Heyes (1994) then defined training as employee development via engaging employees in a commitment to the organization. But this definition only involved employees in commitment and did not state how they were to be developed at work, so Heyes and Stuart (1996) refined this definition by adding that training is a development process which evolves through strategic stages. This definition indicates that development in any organization, whether short or long term, involves organizational commitment. Buckely and Caple (1995) defined training as a strategy to develop employees in skills, knowledge and attitude through a learning experience to achieve effective performance in a range of activities. Again, this definition was subject to important refinements, when Montesino (2002) pointed out that many factors may affect the effectiveness of training, including individual employees behaviour, the training programme, the local environment and the amount of support from each trainees immediate supervisor. Earlier, when Smith and Hayton (1999) defined training, they also attempted to show how certain factors impact on training needs and the decision to train employees. First, employee performance is very important and should be improved. Secondly, improvement is needed in the flexibility and adaptability of employees. Finally, training always needs new technology and investment in training needs to achieve high performance in an organization. This definition indicates the importance of high performance for training decisions, of changing the roles within the organization to increase flexibility and adaptability at work and of using new technology to achieve high performance. The authors also claim that it is a more sophisticated system of human resources management. According to Sparrow (1998), training can be managed to elicit the desired attitudes and behaviours in employees and to enhance involvement, motivation and organizational commitment. The main point of this definition is to motivate and involve employees in organizational commitment; the result could be to change employees behaviour, but these processes are controlled by the organization. Bartlett (2001) adds to this perspective by noting that there are many ways to motivate employees, the best being to improve access to training and the motivation to learn from training, as well as emphasising the perceived benefits of training. This definition shows the importance of motivating employees in training programmes and the benefit to be gained from supervisory support for training within the organization. Finally, Palo and Padhi (2003) define training as the process of developing skills, updating knowledge, changing employees behaviour and attitudes in order to improve their performance and abilities and so to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization. 2.5 Training Theories 2.5.1 Training and Behaviour Theories Luthans (1998) considers that training can help organisations to change employees behaviour and that one technique of behaviour modification, encouraging desired behaviours and discouraging unwanted ones, is operant conditioning. Such behaviourist techniques were first used for the treatment of mental disorders and phobias, in psychiatric rehabilitation and in recovery from accident and trauma. Applications have since been extended to organisational settings. As developed by Fred Luthans (Luthans and Kreitner, 1985; Luthans et al., 1998), organisational behaviour modification theory has five mains steps. The first step is to identify the critical, observable and measurable performance-related behaviours to be encouraged. The second is to measure the current frequency of those behaviours, to provide a baseline against which to measure improvement. Next, the triggers or antecedents for those behaviours are identified, as are their consequences, positive, neutral and negative. The fourth step is to develop an intervention strategy to strengthen desired behaviours and weaken dysfunctional behaviours through the use of positive reinforcement (money, recognition) and corrective feedback, noting that punishment may be necessary, for example to inhibit unsafe behaviour. Finally, there is a systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of the approach in changing behaviour and improving performance over the baseline. Training can appear particularly attractive to managers, who are often in ideal positions to manipulate the reinforcement of certain employee behaviours. They also tend to find this approach attractive because it argues that what has to be changed is behaviour, and that to achieve this one needs to know very little about the complex internal workings of the people concerned. Desirable workplace behaviours include speaking courteously to customers, attending training to develop new skills and being helpful to colleagues. Undesirable ones include lateness, the production of poor quality items and being uncooperative. Training should eliminate undesired behaviour and increase the frequency of desired work behaviour. Suppose a manager wants more work assignments completed on time and fewer submitted beyond deadline. The behaviour modification options are summarized in Table 2.5.1. Luthans (1998) gives some ideas for improving performance through training, which failed to work. But Luthans argues that behaviour modification should be designed to suit organisational applications. Firstly, training should be applied to clearly identifiable and observable behaviours, such as timekeeping, carrying out checks and repairs, and the use of particular work methods. Secondly, to change organisational behaviour there should be a good strategy of rewards which are contingent on the performance of the desirable behaviours. Thirdly, training should focus on positive reinforcement, which can take a number of forms, from the praise of a superior to cash prizes, food or clothing. Finally, training can lead to sustained modification of behaviour only if positive reinforcement is continued (albeit intermittently). Training and Motivation Theories Smith and Hayton (1999) identify the following theories, which mention the role of training in organizations. i. Human capital theory This theory focuses on training in terms of economic investment. Human capital theory sees training as improving efficiency (Becker, 1964; Mincer, 1974; Strober, 1990). It is concerned with developing ideal training conditions. In the 1980s neo-human capital theory stated that organizations should train their employees consecutively to develop the flexibility and suppleness of the workforce and their receptiveness to modernisation (Bartel and Lichtenberg, 1987). ii. Human resource management theory This theory concerns the commitment of employees to the organization and views training and employee development as a means of engaging it (Rainbird, 1994; Heyes and Stuart, 1996). The early formulation of a hypothetical structure for HRM came from the Harvard Business School in the early 1980s (Beer et al., 1984). Training is seen as a strategy for managing the human resource flow of a venture which, with other human resource policies, creates commitment, competence, congruence and cost-effectiveness. iii. Training and high performance theory This is among the most widely adopted theories in organizations in Britain and the USA. It concerns the skills trajectory and proposes a distinction between those occupations which are becoming increasingly skilful and others which are deskilling over time (Gallie and White, 1993; Cappelli, 1993). Studies of high-performance employment practices and HRM strategies have resulted in the concept of human resources bundles (MacDuffie, 1995; Dyer and Reeves, 1995) which highlight the significance of implementing a number of HRM practices collectively in bundles in order to enhance performance. Training is always cited as a critical measure within the set. Training Needs Analysis Training needs analysis (TNA) is a very important stage in the methodical training cycle of design, delivery and evaluation. The purpose of TNA is to take account of unusual meanings and perspectives depending upon a variety of actors in the process, avoiding misunderstandings about prospects and what can be achieved. In addition, external trainers and consultants are able to acknowledge the importance of a challenge when they rely upon TNA which has been conducted prior to their involvement with an organization. For instance, the excellence of feedback provided by the TNA process might differ significantly, from a very detailed search to a cheap and cheerful canvassing of opinions about what is needed. In addition to the challenges noted above, there are considerations about whose benefit is served: Is the training compulsory? Does it represent the needs of individual people, their managers, the organization, etc? 2.6.1 Definition of Training Needs Analysis Williamson (1993) defines TNA as a systematic approach to determining the real training needs which exist within an organization or department. This indicates that TNA involves collecting information, for example by examining the training programmes of different organizations. A number of managers will refer to the total procedure of identifying the essential training needs, after which the next step is to analyze and address them by the best available method. The pure understanding of the term describes the last procedure simply. Although understanding can differ, it is significant that there is supposed to be constancy of practice within any organization and all employees are assumed to be completely conscious of the sense of local terminology in this field. The term training need can be difficult to define in practice, with serious consequences. On other hand, there are many authors who have defined training needs analysis as the examination or diagnostic portion of the training system. In addition, it seeks to determine whether there exists a case of supposed performance deficiency in many organizations (Camp et al., 1986). This view applies to TNA. That is to say, needs evaluation in a training needs analysis is, in truth, a diagnostic attempt, rather than an effort to identify an apparently deficient performance, because TNA does not have direct access to employees performance. Conversely, Goldstein (1986) defines TNA as an attempt to analyze and diagnose an organization, task or individual, to decide if a cure is required and if so, which is the most likely to produce the desired results. Once more, TNA is seen as a diagnostic process at an organizational level. 2.6.2 Approaches to TNA One of the earliest writers on TNA was Boydell (1976), who planned a methodical approach to training needs that had its roots in analyzing supplies using a method based on organizational objectives. For Boydell (1976, p. 4), A training need exists when the application of systematic training will serve to overcome a particular weakness. He also argues that training needs must be identified before training begins. A similar perspective is presented by Bartram and Gibson (1994, p. 3): Analyzing training needs provides a focus and direction for the investment an organization has to make in its people. Likewise, Bee and Bee (2003) assert that organizations needs are the drivers for training solutions to close any performance gap. Two supporting considerations which influence TNA are also noted by Reay (1994). Firstly, establishing who has ownership of the TNA is likely to determine whether the findings are ignored or implemented. Secondly, the person who really pays for it will point to t he real employees and this is usually senior management. On the other hand, this methodical approach to TNA tends to adopt organizational perspectives. Reid and Barrington (1999) accept these perspectives, but warn that the needs may sometimes conflict, e.g. long-term development for an individual and lack of support opportunities might contradict each other. Similarly, Sloman (1994, p. 24) notes that in the training sphere there can be a singular divergence of interests between the organization and the individual. This viewpoint is shared by Palmer (2006), who warns against assessing training needs solely from the viewpoint of the organization. Many individual employees correctly follow their own training and development agendas and strategies. There are also sound business and motivational reasons for organizations to help employees to complete their self-development needs. Learning and development are continuing and practical (Sloman, 2003). They are supposed not to have to wait for business needs and training objectives to be set before embarking on a programme. Therefore, individuals need to take more responsibility for their own learning, rather than waiting for the organization to lead them. 2.6.3 Important TNA Factors in a Changing Competitive Environment There are important factors which affect TNA in a competitive environment for any organization and which a professional approach to change requires those responsible to consider. These are now examined in turn. i. Cross-competitive environment The abolition of collective differences in vocational results can be maintained by training programmes for diverse employees in a competitive environment, which can produce admiration for individual differences in attitudes, values and behaviours, according to DNetto and Sohal (1999), who recommend certain practices in the field of training. These include identifying exact training needs which are connected to the organizations goals and objectives; assessing individual training needs to facilitate a contribution within the training programme; developing individual annual training strategies which take account of knowledge, operational and interpersonal skills, attitudes to the job and technological skills training; evaluating literacy, language and numeracy to assess the ability to undergo training; connecting training to rewards, project agreements, development procedures and pay scales; and identifying the complementary skills of employees through a review process. ii. Diversity Moore (1999) suggests that a diversity needs analysis is required for the effective integration of diverse group members. Two contrasting approaches to diversity of background are to ensure that the organization is diversity blind or to provide a diversity-negative environment. According to Moore (1999), an important starting point in an environment of diversity in TNA is awareness of different challenges faced by people from different backgrounds within the organization. Training programmes should facilitate the understanding and appreciation of actual differences between people, which can apply in communicating and using language, in learning styles, in methods of dealing with conflict and in task and relationship orientation. Developing and integrating competencies and skills in culturally diverse employees is the next step presented by Moore (1999). It should create a mechanism whereby individuals learn to avoid damaging processes due to dysfunctional interpersonal conflict, miscommunication, higher levels of stress, slower decision-making and problems with group cohesiveness. Moore (1999) states that the development of important communication skills is needed in order to achieve effective integration of competencies. These skills are the ability to consider viewpoints that may differ from ones own, to communicate, to negotiate and to face difficulties appropriately. iii. Leadership According to Silverthorne (2005), leadership plays an important role in decision-making and organizational achievement. In order to develop effectively in a cross-competitive environment, leaders must understand and control their own behaviour, as this affects employees perceptions of leadership. They must also ensure that environmental issues are considered when choosing the best management style. However, appreciating the differences in leadership styles is not sufficient to be an effectual leader, as the necessary insight also varies with the environment. Silverthorne (2005) states that an effectual leader knows which leadership style to employ and when to employ it. There are four contrasting leadership styles: active or involved, supportive, participative and attainment-oriented. Active leaders tell subordinates what is required and put into effect individual systems to direct them; the supportive leader creates a friendly environment and is responsive to her subordinates needs; the participative leader engages them in the decision-making process; and the achievement-oriented leader applies high standards to the decision-making process and appears confident that subordinates will reach them. Silverthorne (2005) argues that an effective leaders choice of leadership style is based on the context of the task and the needs of the subordinates. iiii. Communication Silverthorne (2005) also suggests that one way to achieve better communication between individuals with different competitive backgrounds is to apply TNA to managers on how to work in a competitive environment. He proposes four ways of reducing cross-environment communication problems. First, managers should focus on differences in communication styles. Understanding that employees are different means describing a behaviour, rather than the individual. This will give the manager the time to understand the subject being discussed. Thirdly, the manager should attempt to understand the subject from the employees perspective. Seeing the employees point of view gives the manager an opportunity to better understand what the employee is trying to communicate. Finally, the manager must listen more openly than normal and engage in exercises to improve the communication process. 2.7 Management Training Many organizations today have training programmes for their employees but the reasons for conducting them vary widely. Some provide job orientation for new recruits; others training on new equipment for existing employees or strategic planning courses for managers. Successful managers need multi-skills training and detailed information about the organization. Training programmes for managers should cover different skills than those for employees; examples are functional, administrative, planning and leadership skills. Assessing changes in performance following training is complicated by the fact that while some of these skills can be easily observed in the short term, others will be apparent only from long-term changes in the performance of the manager, the department or the entire organisation. 2.7.1 Different types of training needs All employees should be aware of the types of management training their organization offers, because many will be planning to be line-managers in the future, so will require certain skills. McConnell (2003) lists twelve types of training which are very useful in ones current job and helpful for the future. These are now examined in turn. i. Group Training Group training involves three or more individuals who participate in a common learning activity, generally led by a group facilitator. ii. Coaching Coaching is one-on-one job training. Generally it includes demonstrations, lectures and observation of practice. iii. Mentoring This is a process in which experienced employees are assigned to assist newer employees through guidance. Sometimes it takes a formal approach; at others it is informal. It is also used to introduce employees to a companys culture and environment. iiii. Self-Paced Learning This is any learning activity in which the learner determines the speed at which the material is covered. Generally, it is an individualized form of instruction, but it can be used with groups, the speed being set either individually or by the group. V. E-Learning This is a term used to describe learning activities conducted from the users desktop via the Internet or e-mail. It is generally an individual activity. Vi. Computer-Assisted Instruction This is the delivery of training via a computer. Again it is generally individualized. It can include programmes on modelling, simulation, practice and knowledge. Vii. Distance Learning Training This describes instruction in which the teacher is geographically separated from the learner. Connection can be via satellite or phone line with the instruction delivered to a PC or to a room specially equipped with video or audio conferencing equipment. Viii. Self-Study Self-study refers to learning activities initiated and participated in by an individual. Programmed or computer-assisted instruction and reading assignments can all be self-study activities. Viiii. Simulations These are controlled and standardized representations of a job, activity or situation used as a basis for developing skills in dealing with the simulated situations. VV. Lectures These are structured oral presentations delivered for the transfer of information. VVi. Job Assignments Job assignments place an individual into an actual job, generally for a limited period of time, the primary goal being to learn all or part of the job. VVii. Job Rotation This is similar to job assignment but generally includes several assignments in a planned order or the exchange of jobs with another person. 2.7.2 Different levels of training needs The objective of a training needs analysis is the identification of the training required to meet the recognized needs. In point of fact, while these may be accepted or revised by the employees, a senior person may be assigned to decide what training is necessary. The person conducting the training or assessing the needs is not always the individual who develops or recommends the training. On the other hand, the most important step in TNA is to translate the recognized needs into objectives. Then individual objectives can be used to develop or choose a training approach at individual and organization level. Beside the types of training, McConnell (2003) specifies the levels of needs for individual and organization and the personnel who will conduct the training. i. Supervisors These are the people who manage the people being trained. ii. Human Resources These are the professionals in the human resources department. If training is a function of the HR department, it is treated separately. iii. Operating Department Employees These are the employees of the department for which an individual is to be trained. iiii. Training Department Personnel These are generally training professionals employed by the training department. Their strengths are their skills and knowledge of training techniques and procedures. The most common criticism of such people is that they lack specific job or operational knowledge. Some organizations assign their trainers to specific areas-sometimes even to temporary work in the operating departments-to overcome such weaknesses. V. Operating Department Personnel on Temporary Assignment to Training These are people who usually have excellent job knowledge but often lack training skills. Many organizations use this approach because it gives greater credibility to the training sessions, while the operating personnel on such an assignment benefit greatly from the experience and learning of training techniques. Vi. External Professionals These are usually training consultants, supplier employees, or academics. Generally, they are used when the required degree of knowledge or skill is not available within the organization. These people are usually excellent trainers, but they can be expensive to use. If they offer similar classes on a regular basis, consistency may be lost if the same external person does not conduct all classes. Vii. External Organizations Local schools and professional organizations often conduct registration programmes in general subjects. Knowing the types of training currently being used by an organization and who conducts each training type provides an initial indication of what can be done. However, in some cases the training will have to be designed and/or obtained elsewhere. 2.7.3 The Roles of HR, Trainers and Line-Managers The many roles within the training function can be analyzed and their strengths and weaknesses identified. The training function within an organization should have as part of its mission the meeting of the organizations requirements; its success at accomplishing that will be the basis for the analysis. HR people and line-managers in the training function should help the organization to improve and involve employees in training courses which could be helpful in enhancing their skills and hence their performance, so HR people and line-managers must undertake a number of tasks, summarised below. Training organization: the mission of the training function, its internal structure, and internal and external relationships. Training personnel: the selection, qualifications, and motivation of department employees. Employee training in the requirements of specific jobs or activities. Employee development training in the requirements of future jobs and broadening their abilities in their current posts. Remedial training, conducted to correct inadequate basic skills such as mathematics, reading and writing. Organizational development: improving communication and understanding throughout the organization in order to produce effective, functioning teams; establishing or changing to a desired culture; and responding to changing conditions. Internal and external communication of the training departments abilities, results, and offerings. Training facilities: the physical space and equipment allocated to conduct training. Identifying training needs: determining the training required by individual employees and the organization. Training design and development: creating, structuring, or obtaining a training programme to meet specific ob